Oil Shale, 2006, Vol. 23, No. 1 ISSN 0208-189X
pp. 15–28 © 2006 Estonian Academy Publishers
The present paper is based on the results of the research conducted in 2004
by the Department of Mining of the Tallinn University of Technology and
Estonian Oil Shale Company. The state of the technogenic water body that
has formed in the central part of the oil shale deposit is analysed: the water
level in the area of the stopped and closed mines, water amount and move-
ment direction, water quality and its changes. The state of the water is
assessed and predicted using modelling of the water tables, statistical
analysis of the water quality parameters and the pilot model for describing
the migration of water. The results show that the technogenic water body
studied is in a relatively stable state, and the quality of the groundwater in
that area is fast improving approaching the drinking water standards.
Introduction
The Estonia oil shale deposit comprises about ten closed and stopped
deep mines that are fully or partly filled with water (Table 1). Eight mines in
the central part of the deposit: Ahtme, Kohtla, Kukruse, Käva, Sompa,
Tammiku and mines Nos. 2 and 4 form one water body. After Ahtme mine
was filled with water in December 2004 (Fig. 1), the water body turned
relatively stable. Ubja mine and joint Kiviõli and Küttejõu mine are located
in the western part of the deposit, farther away from the other mines. In addi-
tion to oil shale mines, Sillamäe uranium mine (1949–1952) [1], and Ülgase
(1922–1938) and Maardu phosphorite mines (1942–1965) have been closed
in Estonia. The water regime in these mines has not been studied yet and is
not discussed in the present paper.
*
Table 1. Closed and flooded underground oil shale mines
Mine
Closed –
(pumps
were
stopped)
Mined
area,
km2
*
Water table
a.s.l.,
m
Outflow regulating
the water table
Approximate
water volume,
106
m3
Central part of the deposit:
Kukruse 1967 13 51–54 Mostly into Käva and
Jõhvi mines
3.5–6**
Käva and
Käva-2
1973 18 51–52 From an old adit into
Vahtsepa ditch
9–11**
Mine No. 2
(Jõhvi mine)
1974 13 51–56 Mostly into Tammiku
mine, during flood
to Jõhvi city
10–11**
Mine No. 4 1975 13 41–42 Mostly into neigh bouring mines
3–8**
Tammiku December
1999
40 44–48 Into the Kose River
and Viru mine
34
Sompa February
2000
27 40–45 Into neighbouring
mines
23
Kohtla June
2001
17 39–42 Into Aidu opencast 13
Ahtme December
2001 –
December
2002
35 ≈ 47 From drill holes and
springs into Sanniku
brook
36
Separate mines in the western part of the deposit
Kiviõli &
Küttejõu
1989 29 41 ± 0.5 From a ditch into the
Purtse River
Up to 29
Ubja 1960 2 ≈ 55 From an adit into the
Toolse River
Not determined
Total ≈ 170
* [5]
** Depending on the water level [6]
As a rule, the mine workings and groundwater cone of depression formed
during mining fill with water after the cease of mine pumping. The degree of
filling depends on the mining depth and the height of outflow. The tunnels of
Ahtme, Sompa and Tammiku mines are completely, those of mines Nos. 2
and 4 almost completely water-filled. The rest of the mines (Kiviõli, Kukruse
and Käva) contain areas with dry floor. The museum founded in Kohtla mine
is dry because of to the draining effect of Aidu opencast and the water
barriers surrounding the exposition area. The water level changes depending
Technogenic Water in Closed Oil Shale Mines 17
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
2002 2003 2004 2005
Water level, m
Tarakuse well Pagari well
Fig. 1. Increase in the water table in closed Ahtme mine
on the amount of precipitation and water exchange with neighbouring mines.
The rate and amplitude of the changes differ from mine to mine.
Several problems have arisen from the flooding of the closed mines.
First, the technogenic water body started to affect the amount of the water
pumped out of the working mines and its seasonal variation [2]. Clearly, the
water of the closed mines will influence also the new mines, planned to be
constructed in the Ojamaa and Uus-Kiviõli mine fields. Second, the environ-
ment is affected by the water that in several places has risen to the pre-
mining level (of the year 1945) and by the new springs formed. Several
projects have been undertaken to fight the flooding, and it has turned out that
no sufficient source data for mine planning are available. Third, the water of
the closed mines is an easily accessible water resource, thus it is important to
know and predict its quality [3]. Prediction of the mine water quality is
essential also because of the fact that groundwater elevation in the mine field
has started to affect the water supply of the region – the water richer in
sulphates runs into the outdated and leaky common wells. It has also been
prognosticated that if the groundwater table rises higher than 45–47 m, the
water in the Ahtme mine field will affect the water level and quality of the
Vasavere intake [4]. Fourth, the land above old mines has subsided and the
rocks are fractured, therefore the technogenic groundwater is weakly protected
and the contribution of precipitation to groundwater formation is very high.
Water level
The present study is based on the water level measurement data (incl.
archive data) provided by the Estonian Oil Shale Company, Geological
Fig. 2. Map of the technogenic water body
Technogenic Water in Closed Oil Shale Mines 19
Survey of Estonia and Municipality of the town of Jõhvi. The water levels of
the Keila–Kukruse, Lasnamäe–Kunda and Nabala–Rakvere aquifers, closed
mines and main outlets were measured on an average period of 20 years.
New data were obtained in the years 2003 and 2004. Field works and
monitoring started in the spring of 2004 and are still going on.
An essential part of the research was the modelling of the level of the
Keila–Kukruse aquifer in the stationary regime. The modelling area included
the central part of the deposit – underground mines and Aidu opencast. Data
from about 50 observation wells were used. The water level of working mines
was described at the level of the oil shale bed floor. Closed mines were treated
as independent water sub-bodies, where the water level is constant at a certain
moment of time (Table 1). The MapInfo Professional software was used,
combined with the modelling package Vertical Mapper. The comparison and
calibration of the intermediate results obtained and discussions held showed
that the best interpolation method was triangulation with smoothing, because
in that case interpolation takes place only between data points or observation
wells, without modelling the situation outside the study area.
During the first stage of the research the state of the water body in August
2004 was assessed. According to the measurements and calculations performed,
precipitation accounts for up to 70% of the water pumped out of mines [2]. The
autumn–winter season of 2004 was rich in precipitation, with little snow and
relatively warm. Therefore it could be expected that Ahtme mine would fill with
water sooner than predicted [4]. To check that hypothesis, the model was
calibrated at the second stage of the research in December 2004. The contour
map of the modelled water table is shown in Fig. 2.
By continuous improvement of the existing and addition of new data
more than ten two- and three-dimensional map versions were completed.
The model enabled us to assess the water levels in different mines and their
border areas and to make assumptions and predictions about the water move-
ment directions.
Water quality
In the years 2000–2004 the department of environmental services of the
Estonian Oil Shale Company had the waters of all closed mines analysed. The
samples were taken at six sites in four mines in different seasons. Analyses
were made at the central laboratory of the Estonian Oil Shale Company
(3 analyses), in Tartu Environmental Research Ltd. (2 analyses) and in the
Geological Survey of Estonia (12 analyses). Up to 16 quality parameters were
determined. The results of the analyses are presented in Table 2.
The quality parameters are arranged in Table 2 in the decreasing order of
the variation in measurement results. At first glance only the average contents
of iron, sulphates and phenols obtained for the observation period do not meet
the drinking water standards. This cannot be a final conclusion. The average
Table 2. Water quality parameters in closed Ahtme, Kohtla,
Sompa and Tammiku mines
Quality
parameter Unit
Number of
measurement
results
Numerical data for the entire period
(2000–2004)
Leachates Total Certain
numerical
values
Arithmetical
mean
Standard
deviation
Variation
coefficient
Max. levels
permitted in
drinking
water
Total Fe mg/l 14 10* 0.69 1.16 1.67 <0.2
NO3
-
mg/l 15 11* 11.7 18.55 1.58 <50
NO2
-
mg/l 12 7* 0.015 0.0166 1.10 <0.5
SO4
2- mg/l 15 15 342.4 240.2 0.70 <250
Dry residue mg/l 14 14 845.5 569.6 0.67 –
Mg2+ mg/l 15 15 51.6 32.58 0.63 –
K+
mg/l 13 13 12.9 8.11 0.63 –
Ca2+ mg/l 15 15 174.5 107.6 0.62 –
Na+
mg/l 14 14 10.4 6.33 0.61 <200
Cl mg/l 15 15 16.4 9.74 0.59 <250
Total hardness mge/l 13 13 13.72 7.04 0.51 –
Oil products mg/l 15 4* 0.15 0.073 0.49 <0.05
Conductivity μS/cm 14 14 1095 477.6 0.44 <2500
NH4
+
mg/l 12 2* 0.017 0.0064 0.39 <0.5
Total phenols mg/l 15 4** 0.0017 0.00049 0.28 <0.0005
pH 15 15 7.1 0.33 0.05 6.5–9.5
* due to the lack of a certain numerical value the result was smaller than the preciseness of the
laboratory tests, but not exceeding the limits permitted in drinking water
** due to the lack of a certain numerical value the result was smaller than the preciseness of
the laboratory tests, in two cases not exceeding the limits permitted in drinking water; rest of
the samples gave no unique result
Notes:
Quality parameters are ordered according to the variation coefficient.
The shaded lines contain the measurement results the average of which does not meet the
Estonian drinking water standard.
The content of benzo(a)pyrene was measured in 11 samples. The results are not included in
the table because no certain numerical values were obtained. In all samples the benzo(a)
pyrene content was lower than the permitted maximum value.
and standard deviations given in the table have been calculated for all closed
mines and for the entire observation period, thus they characterize only the
data set and not the quality of water or a particular mine. Variation in the
measurement results is caused by influential as well as random factors.
Influential factors are the sampling site (mine) and the time span that has passed
since the closure of the mine. Let us treat this assumption as a working
hypothesis. A random factor is the season when sampling was performed. For
example, in the years 2000 and 2001 samples were taken in summer, in 2002–
2004 in autumn. Surely the water quality parameters depend also on the
Technogenic Water in Closed Oil Shale Mines 21
location of the sampling site in the mine field. Some part of variations result
from the methodology of sampling and laboratory tests. The reliability of
iron content analyses carried out in different laboratories could be questioned.
The phenol content of mine water, measured repeatedly during mining, has
been 0.003 ± 0.001 mg/l, except for Kiviõli mine, which has been strongly
affected by chemical industry. Here the phenol content of mine water was
0.38 mg/l [7].
For preliminary checking of the working hypothesis we conducted a two-
factor (place and time) variation analysis of the sulphate and iron contents of
Tammiku and Sompa mine waters. The results of sulphate analysis are given
in Table 3. We can see that the hypothesis of the influence of place and time
on the sulphate content of water is relatively strong (probability of a counter-
hypothesis 18.0 and 18.8% respectively). The residual standard deviation
(187 mg/l), however, is too large for making definite conclusions. Obviously
the result is influenced by taking samples in different seasons. An analogous
result was obtained by the variation analysis of the iron content, whereas the
impact of time turned out to be small. Possibly this could result from the
treatment of samples in different laboratories.
In spite of great uncertainty of measurement, the sulphate and iron
contents decrease with time. This trend is depicted by graphs in Fig. 3. As
could be expected, the purification of water is best described by the
exponential function. The constants in the formulae (801 and 0.77 mg/l,
respectively) characterize the average concentrations at the initial moment of
the dilution process (at the closure of mines) and the time factors (–0.386
and –0.507, respectively) show the rate of water purification. The half-life of
the concentration calculated on the basis of time factors, i.e. the time period
during which the content of a component decrease twice, is about 1.8 years
for sulphates and 1.4 years for iron. From the half-life and graphs we may
presume that in about five years after the closure of a mine the content of
sulphates and iron decreases below the maximum permitted level in drinking
water. The highest permitted content of iron in first-class drinking water is
0.2 m/l and that of sulphates 250 m/l.
The data on all mines are included in the graphs of Fig. 3. The measure-
ments revealed varying initial concentrations of sulphates for different
mines. The highest concentration was recorded in the first sample from
Ahtme mine, the lowest in Kohtla mine. Actually, this is not the initial level,
since the first samples were taken 4–11 months after the pumps had been
stopped. Approximating the results obtained from the samples of each mine
separately, we get theoretical dilution of the initial concentration level at the
zero moment, about 2200 mg/l for Ahtme and 300 mg/l for Sompa. These
values refer to a relation between the depth of the mine and the initial
concentration of sulphates. The hydrogeological background of this pheno-
menon is discussed by Erg [3].
Table 3. Results of the variation analysis of the content of sulphates
Source of Variation df MS F P-value
Mines (Tammiku, Sompa) 1 91681 2.63 0.180
Years (2002–2004) 4 92788 2.66 0.183
Error 4 34924
Residual Standard Deviation 187 mg/l
Total 9
SO4
2- = 801 e-0.386 t, mg/l
R2
= 0.46
10
100
1000
10000
01234567
t - closed, years
SO42- - sulphate content, mg/l
250 mg/l
Fe = 0.77 e -0.509 t , mg/l
R2
= 0.39
0.01
0.1
1
10
01234567
t - closed, years
Fe content, mg/l
0.2 mg/l
Fig. 3. Decrease in the content of SO4
2- and Fe in closed
mines.
250 mg/l and 0.2 mg/l – maximum permitted levels in
drinking water.
The water quality parameters for which we had at least 14 reliable
measurement results (pH, electric conductivity, total hardness, Cl-
, dry
Technogenic Water in Closed Oil Shale Mines 23
residue, Na+
, Ca2+, Mg2+, K+
and SO4
2- ) were subjected to correlation
analysis. From the analysis we could conclude the following:
• The content of sulphates can be considered a good indicator of mine
water quality, because it correlates well with most of the other water
quality parameters, except for K+
.
• Electric conductivity can be successfully used for rapid assessment of
water quality, because it correlates well with sulphates as well as with
other main parameters (except for K+
).
• pH is not informative enough, because it does not correlate with any
other water quality parameter.
Pilot model of water exchange
Continuous water exchange is going on between the closed mines. The
water penetrating into mines is derived mostly from precipitation, less from
groundwater. The part of the water not flowing out of the mine (Table 1)
infiltrates into the neighbouring mines or feeds aquifers. The water pumped
out of the working mines is formed of precipitation, groundwater and the
water coming from closed mines. Intensity of water exchange depends on
the length (L, km) and thickness (l, m) of the barrier left between the mines,
difference between the water levels of neighbouring mines (dh, m) and
permeability of the barrier and overburden (km, m2
/d). The longer and thinner
is the barrier, the greater is the water level difference in neighbouring water
bodies, and the higher is the permeability of rocks in the areas separating the
mines, the more intensive is the exchange of water.
The water levels of the closed mines are precisely known. The measure-
ments of barriers can be obtained from the plan of mining works, but the
length and thickness of the barriers are highly variable. Little data are
available on the permeability of pillars and bedrock. As seen in Table 4, the
permeability of the Keila–Kukruse aquifer differs up to 10 times within the
limits of the deposit.
Water permeability is largely affected by the geological disturbance of
the Earth crust (mostly karst zones), which makes the aquifer highly aniso-
tropic [8, 9]. In the Estonia mine field twofold difference in the permeability
in the northeastern and southeastern directions has been recorded. According
to the data by Domanova, anisotropy is especially great in the area of
tectonic dislocations, where permeability in various directions may differ
several times. Water exchange between the mines is inhibited by extensive
karst zones running along the mine field boundaries between Sompa and
Viru, and Ahtme and Tammiku mines. At the same time, karst zones running
transversely to the mine boundary increase the water exchange between Sompa
and Kohtla mines. Additionally, the water exchange is affected by the properties
of the mined area, which depend on the roof handling methods used. In the area
Table 4. Permeability of the Keila–Kukruse groundwater aquifer in the
mining district
Filtration module Publication
District Permeability,
m2
/d
Estimated difference
in water tables,
m m/h m/d
Kohtla – Aidu,
northern part
1200 5 10 240
Kohtla – Aidu,
central part
780 10 3.25 78
[8]
Kohtla 6–60
Viru 10–40
[7]
Aidu, generalized 393 10 1.6 39
Ahtme, generalized 335 10 1.4 34
[4]
Tammiku 4–20
Ahtme 1–15
[7]
Ahtme – Estonia 90 10 0.38 9 [4]
No. 2 – Tammiku 0.24 6 [10]
mined using roof caving the water-bearing horizon is thicker and of higher
permeability than in the area of room-and-pillar mining.
Because of high uncertainty the calculation of the water amounts moving
between the closed mines is complicated, not only due to the variability in L,
l, k, but also due to the lack of the relation uniquely describing all the
situations. Therefore the present study makes use of the balance method,
which unites the amounts of the water pumped out of the working mines,
and of precipitation and groundwater infiltrating into the mine. The relation
between these amounts is expressed by the approximate formula
qij = 365.25 × Lij × kij × (dhij/2) / (1000 × lij),
where
qij – the amount of the water migrating from one mine (i) to the other (j),
million m3
/y,
Lij – length of the barrier between these mines, km,
lij – average thickness of the barrier, m,
dhji – difference between the water levels of two closed mines at the
moment of modelling, m,
kij – factor characterizing the permeability of the area between the mines
(barriers and overlying rock), which, with some reservation, can be
considered as generalized permeability, m2
/d.
As model input we use the measurements of the barriers between the
mines, volume of the water pumped out of the working mines (especially
changes in it due to the closure of neighbouring mines), amount of precipita-
tion and its relation to mine pumping [2]. The variable parameter of the
Technogenic Water in Closed Oil Shale Mines 25
model is generalized permeability, which is used to balance the model.
Permeability was fitted into the model taking into consideration the informa-
tion available (Table 4), location of mines with respect to tectonic fault
zones and the orientation of the karst zones lying between the mines. The
balanced model can be used for calculating the migrating water amounts by
fluctuations in water level, for example during floods and heavy rains, but
also for planning water level regulations.
The model output is the matrix of water exchange (Table 5), where
• “North” denotes the northern closed mines No. 2, Kukruse, and Käva
and its satellite mines
• “West” denotes the western closed mines Kohtla, Sompa and No. 4
• “Vasavere” is the area east of Ahtme and Estonia mines
• The water amounts in the matrix of water exchange are given in
million m3
/y, whereas (+) shows the amounts infiltrating into the mine (i)
from the mine (j) and (–) shows the amounts migrating from the mine (i)
to the other mine.
Explanations to the matrix of water exchange are given in Table 6. Water
movement inside the water body and the amounts of mine pumping are
shown in Fig. 1. The values presented characterize the state of the water body
in the year 2004, but as we have to do with a pilot model, these are all
approximate.
Table 5. Matrix of water exchange, year 2004, 106
m3
/y
↓Elements
of the water
body
→
Aidu Estonia Viru Ahtme Tammiku North West Vasavere Jõhvi
city Sum
Working mines:
Aidu 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 14.46 0.00 0.00 14.46
Estonia 0.00 0.00 1.64 6.48 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.48 0.00 8.60
0.00 0.00 –1.64 0.00 0.18 7.23 0.00 3.07 0.00 0.00 8.83
Technogenic water body; closed mines (sub-bodies):
Ahtme 0.00 –6.48 –0.18 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.00 –1.07 0.00 –7.65
Tammiku 0.00 0.00 –7.23 –0.07 0.00 2.28 –1.69 –0.50 0.00 –7.22
North 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 –2.28 0.00 –4.60 0.00 –0.15 –7.03
West –
14.46
0.00 –3.07 0.00 1.69 4.60 0.00 0.00 0.00 –11.24
Geographical sites:
Vasavere 0.00 –0.48 0.00 1.07 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.09
Town of
Jõhvi
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.15 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.15
Table 6. Water exchange between mines
Mines, techno-
genic water
sub-bodies and
geographical
sites
Water
exchange,
106
m3
/y
Comments
Working mines:
Aidu 14.46 Inflow from closed Kohtla mine
Estonia 8.60 Main inflow from closed Ahtme mine, less from the direction of
working Viru mine, partly also from the east
Viru 8.83 Inflow from closed Tammiku and Sompa mines, slight outflow
into Estonia mine
Technogenic water body; closed mines (sub-bodies):
Ahtme –7.65 Outflow mainly into Estonia mine and into the catchment area
of the Pühajõgi River through springs and outflow wells
Tammiku –7.22 Intensive water exchange with other parts of the water body,
out flow into the catchment area of the Pühajõgi River through
a caving at Kose
Northern closed
mines Käva,
Kukruse and
No. 2
–7.03 Feeds other closed mines, outflow via Vahtsepa ditch into the
Kohtla River
Western closed
mines Kohtla,
Sompa and
Mine No 4.
–11.24 Intensive water exchange with other parts of the water body,
feeds mostly Aidu opencast
Geographical sites:
Vasavere 1.09 Water inflow mostly from Ahtme mine, to some extent also
from closed Tammiku mine
Town of Jõhvi 0.15 Water infiltrates from closed mine No. 2
Conclusions and recommendations
No great changes in the water level of closed mines and its seasonal
variation are expected if no measures are taken. The situation should not
change after the closure of presently working mines either. In future the
water level of flooded Aidu opencast will be regulated by an outlet into the
Ojamaa River at 40–42 m level, which will be also the common water level
in Kohtla and Sompa mines. In the area of Viru and Estonia mines the
groundwater will rise to the pre-mining level, which will result in an increase
in groundwater flow into the Pühajõgi River at the eastern margin of
Tammiku and Ahtme mines.
It may turn necessary to regulate water level in the mining district. In
order to reduce the flow of groundwater from mine No. 2 to the lower, area
of the town of Jõhvi, the following options could be considered:
• outlet of water at 51 m level at the northern boundary of the mine, near
the adit of unbuilt mine No. 1
Technogenic Water in Closed Oil Shale Mines 27
• blasting of the barrier between mine No. 2 and Käva and Tammiku mines
to enable water outflow towards the Kohtla River (at a level of 51 m) or
into the Pühajõgi River (at 45–47 m level)
• building of a pumping station regulating the water level and operating
seasonally, but this is evidently not efficient due to great expenses.
In order to reduce the water amounts penetrating into working mines and
towards Vasavere intake, it would be purposeful to lower the water level in
several closed mines:
• to 45 m level in Tammiku mine, by dredging the present outlet
• to 42–43 m level in Ahtme mine, by drilling artesian wells
The quality of the water of closed mines is improving. The content of
sulphates and iron in mine water decreases and in about five years after the
closure of the mine is below the maximum level permitted in drinking water.
Monitoring the water quality in closed mines should be aimed mostly at
protecting the water body from surface-derived pollution. The sampling
methods should be improved, with indicating justified times and places for
taking water samples. In some cases the number of parameters measured
could be reduced.
As no reliable data are available about the formation and distribution of
phenols in the water of closed mines, corresponding investigations are
needed before the use of the water. Although phenols are generally believed
to originate from the waste of shale oil plants or from burning spoil dumps,
the possibility of their formation during decomposition of kerogen in water-
filled mines cannot be excluded either. This hypothesis deserves further
special study.
Acknowledgements
This paper was written within the framework of Grant 5913 of the
Estonian Science Foundation “Usage of mined-out areas”, using the database
of research No. 416L “Forecast of hydrogeological changes resulting from
the activities of the Estonian Oil Shale Mining Company” carried out by
Tallinn University of Technology.
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